The Kepler Mission Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Kepler Mission - Research Paper Example By observing the activity of the other planets and stars in the galaxy, the NASA informs human activities thus making the earth a safer place. The other planets and the star orbit revolve around the earth. This implies that the space consists of numerous movements thus increasing the likelihood of collisions (Shipman, Wilson & Higgins, 2013). The authority has determine past crashes on earth thus informing safety precautions in order to avert the loss of lives associated with such activities. The devise monitors the activity on the earth’s Milky Way. Fixed in a particular point of view in the Milky Way, the spacecraft maintains an integral view of the earth’s habitable zone. The spacecraft thus monitors the movement of other planets and stars on the path thus informing the safety and stability of the earth. The main instrument in the spacecraft is known as photometer with which it discovers ad monitors the lights emitted by the other stars on the Milky Way. The device t hen transmits the dates it discovers to the NASA offices on earth for analysis. The analysis always portrays the periodic dimming of the stars and the possible effects on both the earth and their host stars (International Astronomical Union, Pont, Sasselov, Holman & International Astronomical Union, 2009). The spacecraft observes the movement and activity in the space. In doing this, it observes both the light and sound emitted by the other stars orbiting around other planets on the earth’s Milky Way. Launched in 2009, the spacecraft that is part of the massive NASA’s discovery project had a timeline of three years (Marett-Crosby, 2013). However, the project has encountered several challenges most of which have influenced the rescheduling of the dates and the timeline of the project. Among the preliminary challenges to the project was the noise produced by both the machine and the stars in the space. The two impaired the data collection process thus informing the resch eduling of the dates as the association sought to rectify the anomalies. Additionally, in May 2013, one of the reaction wheels of the spacecraft failed thus resulting in subsequent receives and rescheduling of the dates. Goals Kepler maintains a dedicated observation of the earth’s Milky Way relaying fundamental information about the relationship and activities in the earth’s Milky Way. In doing this, the machine explores the structures and diversities of the earth’s planetary system. The information obtained from such studies help inform the activities and movements of people on earth. Some of the movements on the earth’s Milky Way possess substantial danger and security threat to the Earth. Some of the stars move on the earth’s orbit thus presenting potential security threats. The spacecraft observes the speed and closeness of such moving stars thus obtaining the specific dates of impact among others. The project’s goals include the follow ing: To determine the number of earth size planets lie on the earth’s Milky Way. To determine the sizes, ranges and shapes of the planets To estimate the number of planets on the earth’s habitable zone, in doing this, the spacecraft observes the size, the brightness, mass and density of the planets on the earth’s Milky Way. Dedicated monitoring of the space by Kepler among other scientific mechanisms employed by both the NASA and other scientific bodies globally is important in determining the safety of the earth. Kepler uses photographic lenses in capturing

Strategic planing Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Strategic planing - Coursework Example A business can combine other strategies like Cost Leadership or Differentiation strategy for the focus group along with the Market Niche Strategy to maximize its sales. It can identify a market segment for its product and then try to further its edge in the limited competition within that group by either differentiating its product based on the exclusivity etc. or by creating an edge through Cost Leadership strategies for that market segment. â€Å"This strategy provides the company the possibility to charge a premium price for superior quality (differentiation focus) or by offering a low price product to a small and specialised group of buyers (cost focus).† ( Essay on Porter’s Generic Strategies) Ferrari is a very good example of a business which is employing the Niche Strategy in automobile industry along with Differentiation strategy. It has created a car which is a status symbol thus differentiating itself from other automobiles but it is only catering to a small number of customers all over the world. It is also providing a unique customer service to its client for life by picking and dropping off the cars on customer’s doorstep for maintenance and repairs. This exclusive service helps it differentiate itself even within the market niche of luxury sports cars. Vertical Integration. Is your company vertically integrated? If so, is it fully, or partially, integrated? If not, would such a move yield potentially high competitive rewards? Explain your rationale. You can also use a past firm or one with which you are familiar.( use a firm that you are familiar with) Andrew Carnegie’s steel operation in nineteenth century is a classic example of vertical Integration. As the concept of Vertical Integration means that a company controls several or all the steps in the production of a product or service to gain maximum control of that market. This concept was fully employed by Andrew Carnegie who became the steel

Public Debt And Its Political Implications Economics Essay

Public Debt And Its Political Implications Economics Essay The debt limit or so called debt ceiling is the total sum of money that the US government is allowed to borrow in order to cover the existing expenditures: national defense, interest on the national debt, Medicaid and Medicare benefits and other expenditures. The debt limit enables the government to cover the spending that was negotiated between Congresses and Presidents in the past. Nevertheless, it does not apply for new, unbudgeted expenditures. If the debt ceiling limits the government to pay for expenditures that are legal obligations (e.g. interest on the national debt, government employee wages, etc.), the debt ceiling can lead to the default of the US (US Department of the Treasury, 2012). The U.S. Debt-Ceiling Crisis and the Budget Control Act of 2011 In May 2011, the Treasury declared that the debt ceiling of US $14.29 trillion had been reached, but that extraordinary measures could prevent a default and keep government operational. For several months after this announcement, the debt ceiling was in the center of a political battle between the Republicans, who controlled the House of Representatives since the 2010 elections, and President Obama and the Democrats who controlled the Senate. The Republicans insisted on revenue increases and spending cuts as condition for their approval of an increase in the debt ceiling. Both parties could not come to a compromise and by the end of July, the countrys default approached. Finally, an agreement between President Obama and Congressional leaders was reached by the night of July 31, 2011 (Eells, 2013). On August 2, 2011, President Obama signed the Budget Control Act (BCA) that raised the debt ceiling and thus averted the looming, first-ever US government default. The Budget Control Act authorized the increase of the debt limit in three installments. First, the President can require the immediate increase of the debt limit by US $400 billion. Second, the debt limit can be increased by additional US $500 billion, if a joint resolution of disapproval is not enacted. Thirdly, the President can require an additional amount between US$1.2 trillion and US $1.5 trillion that is also the subject to congressional disapproval (Heniff et al., 2011). The first two debt increases, totaling US $900 billion, should be compensated by reductions in future federal spending. The BCA also determined caps on annual expenditures over the following ten years. Estimates on federal spending reductions by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) totaled US$917 billion. For the years 2012 and 2013, the limits on security and non-security spending are separate. For the eight years thereafter, the spending cap will be effective on a single discretionary category (Heniff et al., 2011). Another part of the BCA was the establishment of a Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction. This Committee is tasked with proposing means to reduce the federal deficit by at least US $1.5 trillion over the next ten years. As a result, the BCA provides at least one dollar of spending cuts for one dollar in debt ceiling raise (Heniff et al., 2011). However, if the Joint Committee fails to produce spending cuts of at least US $1.2 trillion, then the President will be authorized to increase the debt ceiling by US $1.2 trillion that need to be compensated by a combination of the spending cuts nevertheless produced by the Joint Committee and across-the-board spending cuts, including military expenditures, education, transportation, Medicare etc. (GAO, 2012). The political battle between Republicans and Democrats had several negative consequences. The delays in raising the debt limit in 2011 resulted in additional borrowing costs for the Treasury of about US $1.3 billion only in the fiscal year 2011, which do not include the multiyear effects on potentially increased interest expenses for Treasury securities of future issues. Other challenges for the Treasury in managing the federal debt under the effects of these delays were the complexity, the time spent and the technical issues that arose before the staff. Moreover, the Treasurys employees had to focus on extraordinary actions instead of focusing on its important debt and cash management responsibilities and staff development (GAO, 2012). The US debt passed the 100%-of-GDP mark after the governments debt ceiling was increased. The new borrowing enlarged the US debt to US$14.58 trillion, surpassing the US $14.53 trillion size of the U.S. economy in the year 2010 and moving the USA into a fiscal situation similar to countries whose public debt is higher than their annual gross domestic product: Japan (229%), Greece (152%), Italy (120%), Ireland (114%) and Iceland (103%). The last time the U.S. debt exceeded GDP was in 1947 after World War II and the deficit was due to extraordinary war spending (Money News, 2011). As a result of the debt increase, Standard Poors (SP) downgraded its USA long-term sovereign credit rating from AAA to AA+ on August 5, 2011. The lowering of the long-term sovereign credit rating by SP reflects the rating agencys believe that the the effectiveness, stability, and predictability of American policymaking and political institutions have weakened at a time of ongoing fiscal and economic challenges to a degree more than was envisioned when agency assigned a negative outlook to the rating on April 18, 2011 (Swann et al., 2011). SP believed that the fiscal consolidation plan that was agreed by Congress and the President was not sufficient to stabilize the general government debt burden by 2015. Additionally, the political positions of Republicans and Democrats were still far apart and the two parties only agreed on minor savings in discretionary expenditures. The Select Committee had to provide more comprehensive solutions. The political disputes diminished the governments capability to manage public finances and distracted attention from the ultimate goals of a more balanced budget and improvement in economic growth. SPs prospect on the long-term rating is unfavorable. The agency can even decrease the long-term rating to AA, if, for instance, the US government cuts its spending less than was negotiated or the new arising fiscal burdens over the next two year period. The other two major rating agencies, Moodys and Fitch, kept their top credit ratings, although they pointed out that downgrades could follow if the US government fails to implement debt reduction measures or an economic slowdown happened (Detrixhe, 2011). After raising the debt limit to US $15.2 trillion in August 2011, Congress increased the debt limit to US $16.394 trillion in January 2012. By the end of August 2012, the amount of debt reached US $15.977 trillion, which is approximately US $417 billion below the debt limit. As the government borrows roughly between US $100 billion and US $125 billion a month, the debt was estimated to hit the limit in December 2012 (Sahadi, 2012). By December 31, 2012, the USA reached its debt ceiling, but the Treasury declared that it can pay outstanding debt obligations and other bills for the next two months. This means that a new political battle, between Congress and the White House, for another increase in the debt ceiling will start in the near future. Effects of the US government shutdowns in 1995-1996 In 2011, the US government was close to defaulting on its public debt. The potential negative consequences of a default are more severe than that of a shutdown. Nevertheless, recent shutdowns can give an example of potential harmful effects of such fiscal issues on the public and economy. In history, the US government has experienced several shutdowns (Figure XY) that occurred when Congress fails to adjust funding for the current fiscal obligations. In this situation the government can no longer borrow funds, but the federal government can continue to operate, given the Treasury has the opportunity to generate additional revenues or to implement special measures. Nevertheless, the continuing incapability to borrow would result in a default (Masters, 2013). Figure XY. Appropriations Funding Gaps: Fiscal Years 1977-1998 Fiscal Year Date gap Commenced   Full day(s)   of gaps Date gap terminated   1977 Thursday 09-30-76 10 Monday 10-11-76 1978 Friday 09-30-77 12 Thursday 10-13-17 Monday 10-31-77 8 Wednesday 11-09-77 Wednesday 11-30-77 8 Friday 12-09-77 1979 Saturday 09-30-78 17 Wednesday 10-18-78 1980 Sunday 09-30-79 11 Friday 10-12-79 1982 Friday 11-20-81 2 Monday 11-23-81 1983 Thursday 9-30-82 1 Saturday 10-2-82 Friday 12-17-82 3 Tuesday 12-21-82 1984 Thursday 11-10-83 3 Monday 11-14-83 1985 Sunday 9-30-84 2 Wednesday 10-3-84 Wednesday 10-3-84 1 Friday 10-5-84 1987 Thursday 10-16-86 1 Saturday 10-18-86 1988 Friday 12-18-87 1 Sunday 12-20-87 1991 Friday 10-5-90 3 Tuesday 10-9-90 1996 Monday 11-13-95 5 Sunday 11-19-95 Friday 12-15-95 21 Saturday 1-6-96 Figure : Appropriations Funding Gaps (Source: U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service) The longest US government shutdown was a shutdown in the years 1995-1996. The U.S. government was shut down for 21 days between the December 16, 1995 and January 6th, 1996 due to the budgetary mismatches between Democratic President Bill Clinton and Republican Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich. In 1995, Clinton denied to cut steeply Medicaid, Medicare and other non-defense expenditures for the 1996 budget. Gingrich responded with the threat that Congress would not approve the increase in the debt ceiling. This would lead the USA to default on its outstanding debt. The first shutdown lasted five days from November 13 until 19 when both parties made an agreement to balance the budget in seven years period. However, the White House and Congress could not agree how this procedure would be accomplished resulting in the second US shutdown for 21 days. Negotiations between the President and Congress over the next 21 days resulted in the agreed seven-year balanced budget plan. The plan cons isted of the tax increases and the little spending cuts (Fiscal Politics Policy from 1970s to the Present). Gressle (1999) showed the effects of the US government shutdown on the public and economy. The first and the second shutdowns in 1995-1996 years resulted in the furlough of an estimated 800000 and 284000 federal employees respectively. The second shutdown had vast effects on all sectors of the economy. A good example is the health care sector where new patients were not accepted into National Institute of Health (HIN) Clinical Center and the hotline calls to HIN regarding health problems were not answered. Around 20000-30000 applicants for US visa were not served each day resulting in million dollar losses for airlines and tourist industries. The closure of 368 National Parks led to the loss of 7 million visitors and US$14.2 million per day in tourism income by locals. After the 1995-1996 shutdowns, President Clinton improved his image (Lader, 2008). The majority of Americans understood that both shutdowns were due to the Republican obstinacy. Nevertheless, the shutdowns in 1995-1996 showed the aftermaths of divided government and the shift of the political policy to the rightwing. Fiscal Cliff There are a lot of expressions for the issue often called fiscal cliff: fiscal slope, austerity crisis or fiscal obstacle course. However, all of them describe the same process, particularly, the automatic tax increases and spending cuts that take effect on January 1, 2013. However, the first person who popularized the term fiscal cliff was the chairman of the Federal Reserve, Ben Bernanke. The chairman used this expression in a speech to a congressional committee in February 2012 in reference to a combination of spending cuts and tax increases set for January 1, 2013. Afterwards, the phrase was used widespread (Geoghegan, 2012). The majority of analysts predict that the implementation of the tax and spending cuts on January 1, 2013 will have no significant influence on the economy as a whole in the short run. At the same time, the long-term effects of these measures would be tremendous. If a deal can not be reached by the White House and Congress, it might have uncertain effects on the economy such as a market panic, a drop in consumer spending, a decrease in business investments, etc. The Congressional Budget Office calculated that the budget deficit would decrease by US $0.5 trillion from 2012 to 2013 and the economy would slow down due to a resulting recession. Almost all Americans would experience a rise of their tax bills with the estimated increase at US $3500 and an after-tax income decline by 6.2% for the average family (Lowrey, 2012). On Tuesday January 1, 2013, Congress approved a deal to end the long partisan dispute over the fiscal cliff. The main changes that were set were the end of last years temporary payroll tax cuts (resulting in a 2% tax increase for workers), the end of certain tax breaks for businesses, shifts in the alternative minimum tax that would take a larger bite, a rollback of the Bush tax cuts from 2001-2003, and the beginning of taxes related to President Obamas health care law. At the same time, the spending cuts agreed upon as part of the debt ceiling deal of 2011 will begin to go into effect (Kenny, 2013). The agreement leads to the increase of the tax rate from 35% to 39.6 % for single persons who earn US $400000 and for couples with an income above US $450000 per year. Americans should also pay higher taxes on dividends and capital gains with the tax rate rising from 15% to 20%. Also, the tax for estates with a value above US$5 million will be taxed by 40% (previous rate 35%), but Republicans succeeded in indexing the threshold of US $5 million to inflation and thus smoothing the effects of the estate tax for wealthy Americans (Ungar, 2013). Among other changes were the extension of an additional year of unemployment benefits for nearly 2 million Americans, the doctor fix related to Medicare and tax credits for college tuition that were extended for another five years (Ungar, 2013). The agreement prevents a significant increase of income tax for around 100 million American families that earn less than US $250000 annually. However, the 2% payroll tax cut, that was originally part of the 2009 stimulus package, will expire (Montgomery and Helderman, 2013). The above measures will prevent the severe economic downturn that could happen in case of going over the fiscal cliff. President Obama pointed out in his brief statement that the new measures would produce US $620 billion in new tax revenues (Montgomery and Helderman, 2013). In conclusion, the new measures that were set to avoid the fiscal cliff were not the ultimate goal of neither Republicans nor Democrats. Republicans are not satisfied with the tax increases and the lack of spending reductions, while Democrats complain about the provisions regarding estates. It seems that the political dispute will continue in the near future and the agreement signed on December 31, 2012 was just a short-term fix to avoid the fiscal cliff. Foreign Holdings of US Public Debt and its Political Implications A crucial point in analyzing the current situation of US public debt and its political implications is the detailed understanding of foreign holdings. As of July 2012 (most recent data), foreign countries owned a total of US dollar 5.4 trillion of U.S. debt, which is approximately 34% of total debt outstanding of US dollar 15.9 trillion. The three largest single foreign holders are the central banks of China, Japan and Brazil. Comparing the situation in July 2012 with the state in July 2002, one can see that the proportion of foreign holdings in US public debt outstanding has grown from approximately 19% to 34% (Treasury Direct, 2012). Figure XY shows that as of July 2012, China is the largest single holder of US public debt with a share of approximately 7.2% followed by Japan with a corresponding share of about 7.0% (US Department of the Treasury, 2012). Figure : Foreign Holdings of US Public Debt (Source: Treasury Direct, 2012 U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2012) Given its low savings rate, the US economy is strongly dependent on foreign capital inflows from countries with high savings rates (for example China  [1]  ) to meet its domestic investment needs and to fund the federal budget deficit. Important to understand is that the willingness of foreign countries to invest in the US economy and to purchase US public debt has helped to keep US real interest rates relatively low in the past, which until recently, contributed to a great extent to a fast US economic growth and enabled the country to consume more that it produces for a long time. Some renowned economists also argue that the US dependency on foreign savings was a contributing factor to the US subprime crisis and the subsequent global financial crisis. However, the size and the recent growth of US public debt have raised concerns about the willingness of foreign countries to continue to invest in US public debt securities. For example, some Chinese analysts claimed that the gover nment should diversify its reserves away from US dollar assets into assets of other currencies. An important short-term political implication of Chinas large holdings in US public debt is that, if China might suddenly decide to sell a large share of its holdings, this would induce other foreign investors to sell off their holdings as well, which could dramatically destabilize the US economy. Possible consequences can be the depreciation of the US dollar as its supply on foreign exchange markets increased and a large increase in US interest rates as a crucial source of funding for investments and the budget deficit is withdrawn from financial markets (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). Therefore, China seems currently able to destabilize the US economy through the sale of a large share of its US debt holdings, which can be seen as a financial weapon (Sandbrook, 2012). In addition, in the long run, if China reduces its US securities, the US would need to replace it with other foreign or domestic investors to fill in the gap. Those investors would probably have to be acquired through higher interest rates compared to those of today. Increased interest rates would cause a fall in all kinds of interest-sensitive spending. The reducing of Chinese Treasury holdings would all else equal cause the foreign demand for US assets do decline, which would then lead to a dollar depreciation (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). All in all, given a large reduction in Chinas holdings of US public debt, the impact on the US economy would still be dependent on whether this reduction takes place gradually or suddenly. Some US policymakers also argue that Chinas large holdings of US public debt give it leverage over the United States on economic and noneconomic issues. An illustrative example of this concern is Ding Gang, an editor of Chinas Peoples Daily  [2]  , who wrote in an editorial in August 2011 that the Peoples Republic of China should create a direct link between the amount of US Treasury holdings with the US arms sales to Taiwan. Gang states Now is the time for China to use its financial weapon to teach the United States a lesson if it moves forward with a plan to sale arms to Taiwan. In fact, China has never wanted to use its holdings of U.S. debt as a weapon. It is the United States that is forcing it to do so. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] China has no choice but to use it as a weapon to defend itself when facing threats to Chinas sovereignty (Gang, 2011). Altogether, Chinas holdings in US public debt can be seen as a strong instrument to put pressure on the United States with regards to poli tical disputes between the two countries. As a result, the growing dependency of the US on China to purchase US Treasury securities to fund the countrys budget deficit has become a major concern to many US policymakers (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). However, the probability that China would suddenly reduce its holdings of US public debt is highly questionable because of the fact that doing so could potentially have a significant negative impact on the Chinese economy as well. The important causality which takes away Chinas incentive to sell is the fact that any Chinese attempt to sell a large portion of its US debt holdings could, on the one hand, dramatically reduce the value of its remaining holdings in international markets. On the other hand, a negative demand shock in the United States would also dramatically reduce US demand for Chinese exports, either through an appreciation of the Chinese Yuan against the US Dollar or a reduction in the US economic growth (especially if other foreign investors sell their US asset holdings as well and the United States are forced to raise interest rates in response) (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). This is especially severe because of the fact that China was the United States largest supplie r of goods imports in 2011. US goods imports from China totaled U.S. dollar 399 billion in 2011, a 9.4% increase from 2010 and up 299% since 2000. Imports from China into the United States accounted for 18% of overall US imports in 2010 (Office of the United State Trade Representative, 2012). A sharp reduction of US imports from China could therefore have a significant negative impact on Chinas economy, which heavily depends on exports into the United States for its economic growth. Moreover, in the case of China, economic growth is also seen as a vital source of political stability and therefore in the interest of the government. Consequently, it can be argued that the US and Chinese economies are mutually dependent  [3]  on each other, which, as a matter of fact, gives China very little leverage over US policy (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). The former US Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers called the mutual damage which would occur to the US and Chinese economies the balance of financial terror (Dorn, 2008). For some time, this balance of financial terror as well as the global financial system has kept China off from exploiting their power position (Dorn, 2008). Nonetheless, regardless of the balance of financial terror, growing bilateral tensions over the US public debt between the United States and China can clearly be observed. For example, the government-controlled Chinese newspaper Xinhua News Agency expressed a lot of criticism on US economic policies regarding the US public debt situation: With its debt approximating its annual economic output, it is time for Washington to revisit the time-tested common sense that one should live within ones means (Xinhua News Agency, July 2011). The days when the debt-ridden Uncle Sam could leisurely squander unlimited overseas borrowing appeared to be numbered as its triple A-credit rating was slashed by Standard Poors (SP) for the first time on Friday. China, the largest creditor of the worlds sole superpower, has every right now to demand the United States to address its structural debt problems and ensure the safety of Chinas dollar assets (Xinhua News Agency, August 2011). To relieve further bilateral tensions between the two countries, China should pursue a more market-liberal path and the United States should abstain from implementing protectionist measures. Doing this, the US-China relationship should develop peacefully and global prosperity will continue. Consequently, the balance of financial terror would collapse and give way to free trade and capital freedom (Dorn, 2008). In conclusion, the main political issue from the perspective of the United States is not Chinas large holdings of US public debt per se, but rather the high US reliance on foreign capital in general and whether this reliance is sustainable in the future (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). Policymakers in the United States should therefore think about the medium- and long-run implications of the countrys high amount of public debt held by foreigners. To do that in an appropriate way, they have to take into account and to understand the economic and political relationships between the United States and its debt holders, with China leading the way. A first step to mitigate the problem is to launch political measures so that the United States increases its level of savings in the long-term in order to reduce the vulnerability to a possible shift away from US assets by foreign investors (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). The Role of U.S. Public Debt in the Global Economy Undoubtedly, the United States still plays an exceptional role in the global economy. First of all, the country is the largest economy in the world. Secondly, it clearly dominates the global monetary system: The United States capital markets are among the most liquid ones (Schuman, 2011) and the special status of the dollar as the worlds reserve currency has become an crucial aspect of Americas power, allowing the country to borrow effortlessly and maintain an assertive foreign policy (Warnock, 2010). In addition, the US dollar is the primary currency used in foreign exchange transactions and trade. Also, as already mentioned in the chapter before, countries such as China and Japan store their national wealth to a large extent in US public debt. The perception has always been that the United States has a safe haven status, meaning that when investors get nervous, they increase dollar-based assets, and especially also US public debt (Schuman, 2011). Having said all this, given the exc eptional status of the United States in the world economy, the global economic and political consequences of the development of US public debt are substantial. Increasing US public debt bears the risk of a fundamental change in the perception of the safe haven status of the United States. Schuman (2011) speculates on what would happen if this change in perception comes true  [4]  : US Treasury securities would be seen as riskier than before and would consequently lose their attractiveness. As a result, interest rates would increase in the United States, raising borrowing costs in the economy and making it more difficult for the US government to finance debt and budget deficits. This can potentially lead to a significant decrease in investments and consumption. The US dollar will presumably depreciate, which will devaluate currency reserves around the globe. All those effects taken together will have negative consequences on the growth of the US economy, lowering living standards for Americans and eventually leading to a slower growth of the world economy. To put it simple, a loss of confidence in the United States as a safe haven results in higher interest rates, which will automatically have negative consequences on the world economy (International Monetary Fund, 2012). Therefore, the exceptional role of the United States makes its public debt situation dangerous for the shape of the global economy due to the fact that overwhelming debt amounts can cause effects that potentially destabilize the world economy. In addition, the ten-year US Treasury bond has the status of the worlds risk-free asset, meaning that the United States is the basic standard by which risk in financial markets is assessed (Warnock, 2010). This is sometimes referred to as the risk-free standard and is a basic convention regularly used in all different kinds of valuations in the daily business world. In particular, the risk-free standard is an important measure in the context of corporate and asset valuation (Damodaran, 2008). Loosing the safe haven status of the United States as a possible consequence of the above-described developments means loosing the risk-free standard convention, resulting in global efficiency losses and higher risks of economic and financial fragmentation (Schuman, 2011). Although the United States exceptional status in the world economy makes its debt situation risky, that status obviously gives the country particular protection as well. A meaningful example of this protection is the warning of Standard Poors to downgrade the United States from its traditional prized AAA credit rating in April 2011 (Schuman, 2011): This warning was a strong signal that Standard Poors was not concerned about the special status of the US in the global economy, meaning that if the country is not able to get its debt situation under control, it will be confronted with a downgrade similar to those of Greece, Spain or Japan. However, financial market participants acted against what economic intuition and theory tells us. US Treasuries weakened immediately after Standard Poors announcement, a clear indication that investors were selling them. Nevertheless, they returned to their old strength shortly afterwards, suggesting that investors even bought US public debt after S tandard Poors warning instead of selling them to a large extent (Schuman, 2011). Moreover, some reactions of major US bondholders indicated that they are not concerned about the countrys financial condition. For example, at the time Japanese Finance Minister Yoshihiko Noda mentioned: [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] basically we continue to believe that US Treasuries are an attractive product for us (Channel NewsAsia, 2011). A further crucial point in the context of the role of US public debt in the global economy is the argument that US policymakers have been relying probably subconsciously on the exceptional status of the United States (Schuman, 2011).  [5]  The particular role of the US in the global economy leads to the outcome that the country does not have to face dangers other nations could never avoid. A political implication of this behavior is presumably that according to some critical authors and journalists the United States are one of the few heavily indebted developed economies that does not have a credible plan to control deficits and debt  [6]  (Schuman, 2011). To put it in simple words, US policymakers have possibly been banking on being like American International Group (AIG) or General Motors (GM) in America or UBS in Switzerland, acting as if the country is too big to fail  [7]  . In conclusion, one can state that a debt crisis in Portugal for example can potentially create uncertainty through world financial markets, and if a larger country such as Spain fell into crisis, this uncertainty could have destabilizing effects. But US public debt bears the risk of crashing the entire operating system of the global economy. Hen

Pro-wrestling In The Nineties :: essays research papers fc

Pro-Wrestling In the Nineties   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A worldwidae phenomenon has swept our worlds people. It has sold out huge stadiums every Monday, Tuesday, and once a month Sundays. This phenom is called Pro-Wrestling, and it seems to have a death grip on today’s youth. I for the most part am an avid fan of wrestling and consider myself very knowledgeable on this subject. That is why I feel that I am able to show an unbiased view of wrestling and what happens behind the scenes, and around children’s homes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The company called WWFE (World Wrestling Federation Enterprises) went from a small company into a huge corporation basically overnight, and then drifted into obscurity again. The WWF’s first popularity influx occurred in the mid 1980’s due to a man called Terry Boella, better known as Hulk Hogan. His charisma and basic likeability made people take a liking to his character right away. Hogan was quoted as saying, â€Å"I am happy that I can bring the business that I have put my blood, sweat, and tears into straight up to the top of the world† (Hogan) Unfortunately, Vince McMahon, the CEO of the WWF, was involved in a scandal that shocked the world. He was handing out steroids to his employees, in order to make them bigger and more intimidating. This was certainly a blow to the up and coming corporation, although Mr. McMahon was quoted as saying â€Å"any publicity is good publicity†, this was definitely the wrong type of publicity he nee ded. This scandal drove away many of the WWF’s fans, which were children whose parents didn’t want them to watch.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Now, over 10 years after those initial scandals, the popularity of the corporation has risen to never before seen heights. Every day they earn millions of dollars on merchandising. Not to mention the amount they get for selling commercial time during their programs, which are the highest rated on cable television. All of this popularity is due to one man, Steve Austin. His hatred for authority and trust no-one attitude brought the federation into its new era. His character appealed to everyone from school children to regular businessmen. Unfortunately for the WWF this newfound popularity has also brought new problems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These new problems are lawsuits, brought about by the parents of children who are injured while â€Å"wrestling†. While the shows are rated â€Å"PG14† on television parents still allow their young children to watch.

Ford Motor Company Case Study

————————————————- ————————————————- Ford Motor Company Case Report ————————————————- Executive Summary Ford Motor Company has a long history, starting in Michigan in 1903. They have focused on designing and manufacturing and have been very successful, however with increasing competition, global markets and over-capacity the company needs to look at ways to improve profitability. The company has implemented various programs and processes to create a lean, responsive system with better consumer forecasting.Their challenge is to continue to research ways to stay viable in current market and industry conditions. Dell Computers has been very successful with a direct model and virtual integration that may or not work well for Ford. CONTENTS * ISSUE3 * ANALYSIS4 * ALTERNATIVES6 * RECOMMENDATIONS 7 * IMPLEMENTATION 8 * CONCLUSION8 * REFERENCES9 * ISSUE: The Ford Motor Company is facing a number of challenges including the direction of CEO Jac Nasser to focus on customer responsiveness and shareholder value to deal with increasing competitiveness, an industry with potential over-capacity and the expansion into globalized markets.Ford had begun to implement systems to reduce cycle-time, improve quality and to lower costs. Programs included consolidating product development into five Vehicle Centres (VCs), reeingineered processes such as Order to Delivery (OTD), Fort Production System (FPS) and Business to Business (B2B) capacity. Additionally, information flow was examined to overcome geographical constraints, thus becoming a critical component of Ford’s global approach. During the past decade the company has implemented many programs and processes becoming the most improved automaker with steady upward trending sales and record profit sharing.The supply chain initially had a base of many competitive suppliers until the 1990’s when they began to move toward fewer, long term supplier relationships. Ford fostered relationships with tier one suppliers who would interface with tier two and other suppliers. With Ford’s support, the suppliers tried a variety of strategies including Just-In-Time (JIT) inventory, Total Quality Management (TQM) and Statistical Process Control (SPC). A limitation emerged in the variance of IT expertise and capability among the supply chain members.To reach the goal of reduced cycle time, creating a lean and flexible process, Ford is researching Dell Computer’s successful direct model to see if this virtual integration system would work for them. The direct model reduces the time and costs of third party distribution through direct interfacing with as few partners as p ossible as a way to improve production and customer responsiveness. The challenge is to determine if this system will work for Ford Motor Company. * ANALYSIS: The CEO’s directive is complicated by various factors.While Dell’s direct model works for Dell, it may or may not be effective with Ford. The company has been through a decade of change and adjustments to various processes and directions and while the option is available, a decision is not urgent as Ford is in a fairly good position. Dell’s direct model involves a customer focus, small numbers of supplier partnerships, customization, a just-in-time inventory and manufacturing. In order to do this, Dell ties in technology to communicate and coordinate these goals and strategies. They use what they call vertical integration.This means that they work very closely with customers and suppliers including actually having staff on site working directly with customers and partners, sharing information and knowledge to enable flexibility and effectiveness reducing cycle times. Dell establishes partnerships or collaborations with their customers and suppliers which is much like controlled outsourcing. Michael Dell of Dell computers argues that outsourcing is traditionally a way to â€Å"get rid of a problem†. His direct model, in contrast, is partnering with companies who are treated as though they are internal staff.This model improves the level of information sharing and motivation to succeed as a team. Technology means that the information sharing can be easily and effectively done in a win-win type of arrangement. The challenge is to maintain these relationships and focus on the task at hand. Providing suppliers with real-time information and up to date demand enables the supplier to act accordingly to meet Dell’s requirements. Removing multiple layers and working closely with customers and suppliers removes the possibility of misinformation, reaction time and ability to not o nly react, but to make more accurate forecasts.Dell has been able to streamline their customer response times by helping the customer ‘decide’ what they need. They make it easier for the customer to make the decisions and are ultimately preparing for it while the conversation is happening. Dell acts as a consultant and trainer getting direct feedback and key information for planning, research and development. They include key people from a wide range of responsibilities in regular meetings to ensure communication, ideas and overall commitment from the entire supply chain. Virtual integration goes even further to merge the traditional roles and boundaries of the supply chain.Dell argues that the direct model and virtual integration is beneficial to the customer from distribution to manufacturing and design. This model works for Dell, but whether it would work for Ford is the question. Ford has already reduced it’s supply chain base by dealing with Tier one supplie rs to use Just-In-Time inventory processes and other strategies to improve commitment and capability. They implemented the Ford Production System (FPS), focusing on key parts of the manufacturing process to improve efficiency. The Synchronous Material Flow (SMF) was developed to ensure a continuous flow of materials.This was done by using lean manufacturing concepts, careful scheduling and sequenced assembly. Their Order to Delivery (OTD) process was also developed to streamline the cycle time, reducing the order to delivery from 65 days to as little as 15 days. In order to do this they used forecasting, keeping 15 days of vehicles in the assembly plant’s order bank, using regional mixing centers for deliveries and a responsive order amendment process. Last but not least they worked on something called the Ford Retail Network (FRN) to test best practices and to create an alternate distribution channel.The idea was to consolidate Ford’s efforts to compete against the co mpetition of other auto makers rather than compete against each other. Because Dell and Ford are such different companies it is difficult to know if vertical integration would work. Dell is a smaller company whose current success is due to customer focus, pull demand, speed of response and virtual integration. In contrast, Ford is a much larger company with a complex and long-standing system of supply chain leadership where purchasing was historically heavily involved in the various activities of the company.A move to virtual integration requires that roles shift and responsibilities change to allow greater collaboration and information sharing. ALTERNATIVES: Differences between the companies include dealer networks, product and process complexity, age and size of the company, technical expertise and control over systems. Ford has a great amount of control, difficulty forecasting customer needs, higher product complexity, a strong dealer network and unionized labour. Dell is relativ ely new, there is high technical expertise, the product is not as complex, forecasting can be fairly accurate and their supplier relationships are good.Ford enjoys a significant amount of control over their supply chain, manufacturing, assembly and distribution, while Dell may not be able to exercise control depending on the relationships built and arrangements made. At this time, Ford does not really need to make a decision to change their business model, but there is a push for greater globalization, efficiency and flexibility. They can move toward virtual integration, stay the same, or adopt some kind of balance of the direct model with their current model.Because of their size and established supply chain, a move toward vertical integration and a direct model would mean fairly drastic changes and giving up controls that have been carefully developed over the past decade. That said, staying the same would not be advisable, as the market is increasingly competitive on the local an d global stage. Ford will be required to look at further adaptations to their operations in order to stay competitive. RECOMMENDATION: It would be advisable for Ford to examine vertical integration in at least some areas of their operations.Because this requires high levels of technology, they can work with Tier one suppliers to develop collaborations and more extensive information sharing. Doing nothing is not usually a feasible option in successful business and full integration would be very difficult to accomplish and my not have the results that Dell has due to the various differences in the companies and their products. IMPLEMENTATION: Ford can use focus groups and regular meetings to move toward a direct model in at least some areas of the business.The dealer network may be used as an advantage to forecasting if they work more closely with the development teams, manufacturing and assembly plants. The customer focus groups can begin to develop relationships that help to develop what customers want and might have as potions can be insightful and will improve forecasting. Purchasing, engineering, marketing and other groups can get involved in these focus groups, which may also encourage dialogue and collaboration toward cohesive end results. * CONCLUSION:Ford has implemented many strategies successfully and has been forward thinking in their consideration of various models and options. Becoming faster may or may not work to their advantage as buying a car is a decision that is weighed carefully and is a bigger investment than choosing a computer or laptop. The speed at which the company supplies a vehicle once ordered is important, but I suggest, not as important as the customer getting the options, financing and service that they expect with this type of purchase.That said, customers expect greater customization and choice than ever before. Whether Ford takes on this model or chooses to research another model is a step in the right direction. Supply chain management is a large part of how well the company can respond to customer needs and ultimately create profit and ongoing competitive advantage. * REFERENCES: Austin, Robert D. , Ford Motor Company: Supply Chain Strategy, 9-699-198, Harvard Business School Publishing, 1999. Magretta, Joan (2001) â€Å"The Power of Virtual Integration: An Interview with Michael Dell,† Harvard Business Review Ford Motor Company Case Study ————————————————- ————————————————- Ford Motor Company Case Report ————————————————- Executive Summary Ford Motor Company has a long history, starting in Michigan in 1903. They have focused on designing and manufacturing and have been very successful, however with increasing competition, global markets and over-capacity the company needs to look at ways to improve profitability. The company has implemented various programs and processes to create a lean, responsive system with better consumer forecasting.Their challenge is to continue to research ways to stay viable in current market and industry conditions. Dell Computers has been very successful with a direct model and virtual integration that may or not work well for Ford. CONTENTS * ISSUE3 * ANALYSIS4 * ALTERNATIVES6 * RECOMMENDATIONS 7 * IMPLEMENTATION 8 * CONCLUSION8 * REFERENCES9 * ISSUE: The Ford Motor Company is facing a number of challenges including the direction of CEO Jac Nasser to focus on customer responsiveness and shareholder value to deal with increasing competitiveness, an industry with potential over-capacity and the expansion into globalized markets.Ford had begun to implement systems to reduce cycle-time, improve quality and to lower costs. Programs included consolidating product development into five Vehicle Centres (VCs), reeingineered processes such as Order to Delivery (OTD), Fort Production System (FPS) and Business to Business (B2B) capacity. Additionally, information flow was examined to overcome geographical constraints, thus becoming a critical component of Ford’s global approach. During the past decade the company has implemented many programs and processes becoming the most improved automaker with steady upward trending sales and record profit sharing.The supply chain initially had a base of many competitive suppliers until the 1990’s when they began to move toward fewer, long term supplier relationships. Ford fostered relationships with tier one suppliers who would interface with tier two and other suppliers. With Ford’s support, the suppliers tried a variety of strategies including Just-In-Time (JIT) inventory, Total Quality Management (TQM) and Statistical Process Control (SPC). A limitation emerged in the variance of IT expertise and capability among the supply chain members.To reach the goal of reduced cycle time, creating a lean and flexible process, Ford is researching Dell Computer’s successful direct model to see if this virtual integration system would work for them. The direct model reduces the time and costs of third party distribution through direct interfacing with as few partners as p ossible as a way to improve production and customer responsiveness. The challenge is to determine if this system will work for Ford Motor Company. * ANALYSIS: The CEO’s directive is complicated by various factors.While Dell’s direct model works for Dell, it may or may not be effective with Ford. The company has been through a decade of change and adjustments to various processes and directions and while the option is available, a decision is not urgent as Ford is in a fairly good position. Dell’s direct model involves a customer focus, small numbers of supplier partnerships, customization, a just-in-time inventory and manufacturing. In order to do this, Dell ties in technology to communicate and coordinate these goals and strategies. They use what they call vertical integration.This means that they work very closely with customers and suppliers including actually having staff on site working directly with customers and partners, sharing information and knowledge to enable flexibility and effectiveness reducing cycle times. Dell establishes partnerships or collaborations with their customers and suppliers which is much like controlled outsourcing. Michael Dell of Dell computers argues that outsourcing is traditionally a way to â€Å"get rid of a problem†. His direct model, in contrast, is partnering with companies who are treated as though they are internal staff.This model improves the level of information sharing and motivation to succeed as a team. Technology means that the information sharing can be easily and effectively done in a win-win type of arrangement. The challenge is to maintain these relationships and focus on the task at hand. Providing suppliers with real-time information and up to date demand enables the supplier to act accordingly to meet Dell’s requirements. Removing multiple layers and working closely with customers and suppliers removes the possibility of misinformation, reaction time and ability to not o nly react, but to make more accurate forecasts.Dell has been able to streamline their customer response times by helping the customer ‘decide’ what they need. They make it easier for the customer to make the decisions and are ultimately preparing for it while the conversation is happening. Dell acts as a consultant and trainer getting direct feedback and key information for planning, research and development. They include key people from a wide range of responsibilities in regular meetings to ensure communication, ideas and overall commitment from the entire supply chain. Virtual integration goes even further to merge the traditional roles and boundaries of the supply chain.Dell argues that the direct model and virtual integration is beneficial to the customer from distribution to manufacturing and design. This model works for Dell, but whether it would work for Ford is the question. Ford has already reduced it’s supply chain base by dealing with Tier one supplie rs to use Just-In-Time inventory processes and other strategies to improve commitment and capability. They implemented the Ford Production System (FPS), focusing on key parts of the manufacturing process to improve efficiency. The Synchronous Material Flow (SMF) was developed to ensure a continuous flow of materials.This was done by using lean manufacturing concepts, careful scheduling and sequenced assembly. Their Order to Delivery (OTD) process was also developed to streamline the cycle time, reducing the order to delivery from 65 days to as little as 15 days. In order to do this they used forecasting, keeping 15 days of vehicles in the assembly plant’s order bank, using regional mixing centers for deliveries and a responsive order amendment process. Last but not least they worked on something called the Ford Retail Network (FRN) to test best practices and to create an alternate distribution channel.The idea was to consolidate Ford’s efforts to compete against the co mpetition of other auto makers rather than compete against each other. Because Dell and Ford are such different companies it is difficult to know if vertical integration would work. Dell is a smaller company whose current success is due to customer focus, pull demand, speed of response and virtual integration. In contrast, Ford is a much larger company with a complex and long-standing system of supply chain leadership where purchasing was historically heavily involved in the various activities of the company.A move to virtual integration requires that roles shift and responsibilities change to allow greater collaboration and information sharing. ALTERNATIVES: Differences between the companies include dealer networks, product and process complexity, age and size of the company, technical expertise and control over systems. Ford has a great amount of control, difficulty forecasting customer needs, higher product complexity, a strong dealer network and unionized labour. Dell is relativ ely new, there is high technical expertise, the product is not as complex, forecasting can be fairly accurate and their supplier relationships are good.Ford enjoys a significant amount of control over their supply chain, manufacturing, assembly and distribution, while Dell may not be able to exercise control depending on the relationships built and arrangements made. At this time, Ford does not really need to make a decision to change their business model, but there is a push for greater globalization, efficiency and flexibility. They can move toward virtual integration, stay the same, or adopt some kind of balance of the direct model with their current model.Because of their size and established supply chain, a move toward vertical integration and a direct model would mean fairly drastic changes and giving up controls that have been carefully developed over the past decade. That said, staying the same would not be advisable, as the market is increasingly competitive on the local an d global stage. Ford will be required to look at further adaptations to their operations in order to stay competitive. RECOMMENDATION: It would be advisable for Ford to examine vertical integration in at least some areas of their operations.Because this requires high levels of technology, they can work with Tier one suppliers to develop collaborations and more extensive information sharing. Doing nothing is not usually a feasible option in successful business and full integration would be very difficult to accomplish and my not have the results that Dell has due to the various differences in the companies and their products. IMPLEMENTATION: Ford can use focus groups and regular meetings to move toward a direct model in at least some areas of the business.The dealer network may be used as an advantage to forecasting if they work more closely with the development teams, manufacturing and assembly plants. The customer focus groups can begin to develop relationships that help to develop what customers want and might have as potions can be insightful and will improve forecasting. Purchasing, engineering, marketing and other groups can get involved in these focus groups, which may also encourage dialogue and collaboration toward cohesive end results. * CONCLUSION:Ford has implemented many strategies successfully and has been forward thinking in their consideration of various models and options. Becoming faster may or may not work to their advantage as buying a car is a decision that is weighed carefully and is a bigger investment than choosing a computer or laptop. The speed at which the company supplies a vehicle once ordered is important, but I suggest, not as important as the customer getting the options, financing and service that they expect with this type of purchase.That said, customers expect greater customization and choice than ever before. Whether Ford takes on this model or chooses to research another model is a step in the right direction. Supply chain management is a large part of how well the company can respond to customer needs and ultimately create profit and ongoing competitive advantage. * REFERENCES: Austin, Robert D. , Ford Motor Company: Supply Chain Strategy, 9-699-198, Harvard Business School Publishing, 1999. Magretta, Joan (2001) â€Å"The Power of Virtual Integration: An Interview with Michael Dell,† Harvard Business Review

Approaches to Physical Education in Schools Essay

Physical activity is a broad term to describe movement of the body that uses energy. Unless otherwise stated, taking part in Sport and physical activity is defined as â€Å"All forms of physical activities which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels. † Physical inactivity is regarded a serious, nationwide problem. Its extent poses as a public health challenge for reducing the national burden of unnecessary illness and premature death. Starting activity from an early age and throughout childhood helps an important input to healthy growth and development. There is strong and growing evidence that regular physical activity reduces the risk of suffering from various common disorders. Evidence shows regular physical activity in childhood and adolescence improves strength and endurance, helps build healthy bones and muscles, helps control weight, reduces anxiety and stress, increases self-esteem, and may improve blood pressure and cholesterol levels. There are also many psychosocial aspects of physical activity, such as having the opportunity for social interaction and support (Hughes, Casal, Leon 1986), experiencing increased feelings of self-efficacy (Simons et al. 1985; Hughes, Casal, Leon 1986), and experiencing relief from daily stressors (Bahrke and Morgan 1978), may help improve mental health status in some people. http://www. cdc. gov/nccdphp/sgr/pdf/chap4. pdf If a child has positive experiences with physical activity at a young age it may help set the foundations for being regularly active throughout life. This would mean not just about teaching children how to play sports, there is the wider proposal in terms of their lives, like giving them aspirations, something to aim for and how they can achieve their goals. Parents and carers are important social influencers upon children and young peoples’ lifestyle choices. Hendry, Shucksmith, Love and Glendinning (1993, pg. 59) state that â€Å"Two major elements appear to be dirctly related to attraction towards and avoidance of sport participation: parents as role models and parental encouragement, expectations and support†. Physical activity promotion is a high component of many government policy statements and commitments in the UK. These include those produced by the Department of Health and other departments such as the Department or Transport, the Department of Culture. The Department of Health’s ‘Saving Lives: Our Healthier Nation’ is an action plan for tackling poor health and improving the health of everyone in England. The Government has recognised the negative economic and social consequences of physical inactivity. In December 2002, the Government published ‘Game Plan’, a strategy for delivering its sport and physical activity objectives. Game Plan’ set a national agenda: to increase and widen the base of participation in sport, to target success in international sport and to promote any reform necessary for the strategy to be delivered. ‘Game Plan’ sets the target of 70% of the population to be reasonably active 5 x 30 minutes per week by 2020. (http://www. sportengland. org/national-framework-for-sport. pdf) The White Paper also agrees that physical activity is a key aid to good health and an important factor in preventing heart disease, stroke and other chronic disease. This document is the 2004 Government Public Health White Paper published by the department of health. It forms the foundation [2004] of public health policy. The White Paper sets out the key principles for supporting the public to make healthier lifestylechoices.   Physical activity is one of six priorities identified in the white paper and actions to promote physical activity are xamined in several chapters; (‘Health in the consumer society’, ‘Children and young people, ‘Local communities leading for health’, ‘Work and health’, and ‘Health promoting NHS’). Everybody knows that Government and individuals alone cannot make progress on healthier choices. Progress depends on effective partnerships across communities, including local government, the NHS, business, advertisers, retailers, the voluntary sector, communities, and the media. The NHS Plan was produced and set out plans for investment in and reform of the NHS. It included the commitment to develop ‘local action to tackle obesity and physical activity, informed by advice from the Health Development Agency on what works’ (Department of Health,2001 The effectiveness of public health interventions for increasing physical activity among adults: a review of reviews) The Department of Culture media and sport (DCMS) encourages greater sport participation. Its strategy ‘A Sporting Future for All’ recognises sport as a â€Å"powerful tool for social, educational and physical wellbeing†. Published in 2000, this document sets out New Labour’s vision for sport including; sport in education, sport in the community, sporting excellence and the modernisation of sporting organisations. The Department for Transport, Local Government and Regions DTLR, formerly the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions, DETR, aims to make it easier and safer for people to walk and cycle, therefore reducing the amount of cars. The Department of Culture Media and Sport Department for Education and Skills (DfES, formerly the Department for Education and Employment, DfEE) launched a joint ‘National Healthy Schools Standard’ in 1999 with DH which consists of ten central themes; physical activity is one of these. Source: adapted from NAO, Tackling Obesity in England (Health benefits of physical activity,2001) One of the government main concerns and well known agendas is to control the raising levels of child obesity. Rates of obesity have dramatically increased in England over the last decade. If no action is taken, one-in-five children aged 2-15 in England will be obese by 2010. (Obesity guidance for healthy schools coordinators and their partners) There is a need for the departments to involve other partners at national and local levels to help develop and implement solid strategies for prevention, which include adults as well as young people. At national levels, this is taking place already, and departments should develop joint objectives and performance targets relating o aspects of physical activity and diet to ensure that this progress is combined. At the local level, health authorities are well located to start these activities by developing Health. They could provide more Improvement Programmes that involve a wide range of other partners in schemes to increase cycling, walking and physical recreation and to improve diet, such as increased consumption of fruit and vegetables, and the knowl edge for a healthy diet. Chief Medical Officer Sir Liam Donaldson said: ‘Higher levels of physical activity among children and young people, together with much healthier eating patterns, are the key to averting the potential catastrophic effects of the obesity epidemic which is beginning to emerge. ‘ (Stars back school sports bid to fight obesity 2004) There is a substantial amount of cross-department work in the areas that are central to addressing the rising levels of obesity. Much of this is targeted at schoolchildren. This addresses a section of the population for which obesity is becoming an increasing problem. The NHS aims to halt the rise in obesity among children in the region by 2010. National and regional activities and programmes are already in place to help tackle obesity such as the ‘five a day scheme’, regulation on food promotion and advertising to children, national weight loss guidance and physical activity programmes and work with the food industry on portion size and labelling. Other Government departments have an influence through school education and the promotion of healthy eating. Many schools now provide a healthy eating plan, abolishing foods such as chocolate and crisps on sale in the canteen. The focus of such strategies should be to make it easier for the public to make healthy choices. Such strategies require funding for implementation, but should ultimately lead to a reduction in the costs to the NHS from obesity related ill health. (http://www. iotf. org/childhood/) Schools are seen as being in the front line in the battle against what has been called â€Å"the biggest public health threat of the 21st century† – obesity. (http://news. bbc. co. k/1/hi/education/3751305. stm) The potential of Physical Education to help contribute to health enhancing behaviour has been long acknowledged. Schools have a key role and are in a significant position in helping pupils to reach the recommended daily level of physical activity, both by providing them with suitable activity opportunities and also by helping them to acquire the skills, understanding a nd confidence to pursue activity outside of the school. PE and school sport is an entitlement for all pupils whatever their own particular needs, preference or circumstance. The national curriculum for PE is not prescriptive and provides flexibility that schools can exercise when providing activities so that the needs of all pupils can be catered for. A key role of physical education is to ‘maintain, and if possible improve the health and physique of the children’ (Issues in Physical Education 2000) Three government departments – DH, DfEE (now DfES) and DETR (now DTLR) have set up the School Travel Advisory Group in 1998 as a forum for debate and coordination. They published guidance for local authorities on building a safe environment to encourage more children to walk or cycle to school. To help the promotion of sport and physical activity in schools the National Healthy Schools Target developed by DH/DfEE sets an ‘expectation’ that pupils should have at least 2 hours physical activity each week. A recent poll that Sport England undertook shows that only 1 in 5 primary schools currently meet the 2 hours target. The national PE, School Sport and Club Links strategy was launched by the Prime Minister in October 2002. Its overall objective is to enhance the take-up of sporting opportunities by 5 to 16-year-olds. The PESSCL strategy has set targets to increase the amount of Physical Education and sport young people do. â€Å"The ambitious target is to increase the percentage of schoolchildren who spend a minimum of two hours a week on high-quality PE and school sport within and beyond the curriculum to 75 per cent by 2006 and 85 per cent by 2008. (childhood obesity 2003) It is also trying to bridge the gaps between school and community sport, opening up schools out of hours to provide additional sports opportunities for all children. A recent campaign that Gordon Brown has proposed is that he wants all school children to get the chance to do five hours of sport a week. Currently children under 16 are required to do two hours a week within the national curriculum.

My Greatest Source of Motivation and Inspiration Essays

My Greatest Source of Motivation and Inspiration Essays My Greatest Source of Motivation and Inspiration Essay My Greatest Source of Motivation and Inspiration Essay My mom has always been my flexure to look up to. She has Inspired me to be the person I truly want to be. My mom is a strong, kind-hearted, and successful woman who has always been there for me. She gives me her strength and love during everything. She is my idol, a woman who has taught me to stay true to myself and become the adult I want to become. Back when I was in grade 6, I was one of those kids who didnt really care about school and never really bothered to do homework. I thought to myself What was the mint in learning things like the history of Canada if we are never going to apply it in real life? Why was I learning about art if Im not planning to be an artist? But then my mom taught me an unforgettable and valuable lesson. She taught me that even though we might not use all the knowledge we learn from school in real life, education is still important. I need to have a good education to be successful in the future. If I do well In school and get Into an honorable university I can learn the things I enjoy and have my choice of work. I would be able support my family and be happy with my Job. She always tells me that I am considered lucky to be even able to have an education because kids elsewhere who yearn to have an education wont be able to get one as they are unable to afford one. I shouldnt think that school is boring and useless and instead think of it as a rare opportunity to learn. Whenever Im not doing well In school, my mom would always motivate me to keep working hard and trying my best for my future. She said that I may not enjoy school but in the end I would regret not learning more. One Sunday evening, a conversion, one that I vividly remembered occurred during inner. We were at home and it was Just my mom, my sister, my dad, and l. We had dinner and there were some of my sisters favorite dishes. Our topic of discussion was what we planned to do for our future. In my family, I have always been the one that doesnt know what to do for my future. My sister already knew what her plans were; she wants to become a pharmacist. L, on the other hand. Didnt know what I wanted. Sure I had a general idea; something in computers, engineering, or mechanics. So not very narrow, but at least an idea. At this time I hated this line of discussion. My sister could say something, but I had nothing to bring to the table. I wanted to make sure the career I chose would be one that I would be comfortable about. This one night before I went into my comforting bed, my mom came in my room and for the first time I told her that I wanted to go Into computer science. She was glad and proud that I finally found something that I want to do. She supported and agreed with my preferred line of work as long as I am happy about it. She encouraged me to continue to work hard and accomplish as much as I can in school so I can go to a amendable multiversity Ana nave my cream career. Nee also toll me auto near past during her education. My mom was also like me when I was a child. She didnt try her best and in result she didnt do really well in school. After she graduated high school she was only able to go to a satisfactory college. After a year in college, she made one of the biggest decisions that she regretted in her lifetime. She quit college be cause she thought it was too difficult and she hated it. This made it really hard for her to find an adequate Job which also made her life a lot harder. My mom has always shed if she could go back in time and remake her decision so she could learn more and may have been more successful. Through the years, my mom has shown me a glimpse of how to be successful, prosperous and to be capable to support my family in the future. School may have been harsh and boring to me when I was a child. But through my moms teachings I have learnt how meaningful a good education is. She is my hero, my guide, who taught me how to stay strong and become what I want to be. She is my inspiration and her strength allows me to continue to do my absolute best in school.

Ethos, Logos, Pathos for Persuasion

Ethos, Logos, Pathos for Persuasion You may be surprised to learn that much of your life consists of constructing arguments. If you ever plead a case to your parents- in order to extend your curfew or to get a new gadget, for example- you are using persuasive strategies. When you discuss music with friends and agree or disagree with them about the merits of one singer compared to another, you are also using strategies for persuasion. Indeed, when you engage in these arguments with your parents and friends, you are instinctively using ancient strategies for persuasion that were identified by the Greek philosopher Aristotle a few thousand years ago. Aristotle called his ingredients for persuasion pathos, logos, and ethos. Persuasion Tactics and Homework When you write a research paper, write a speech, or participate in a debate, you also use the persuasion strategies mentioned above. You come up with an idea (a thesis) and then construct an argument to convince readers that your idea is sound. You should become familiar with pathos, logos, and ethos for two reasons: First, you need to develop your own skills at crafting a good argument so that others will take you seriously. Second, you must develop the ability to identify a really weak argument, stance, claim, or position when you see or hear it. Logos Defined Logos refers to an appeal to reason based on logic. Logical conclusions come from assumptions and decisions derived from weighing a collection of solid facts and statistics. Academic arguments (research papers) rely on logos. An example of an argument that relies on logos is the argument that smoking is harmful based on the evidence that, When burned, cigarettes create more than 7,000 chemicals. At least 69 of these chemicals are known to cause cancer, and many are toxic, according to the American Lung Association. Notice that the statement above uses specific numbers. Numbers are sound and logical. An everyday example of an appeal to logos is the argument that Lady Gaga is more popular than Justin Bieber because Gagas fan pages collected 10 million more Facebook fans than Biebers. As a researcher, your job is to find statistics and other facts to back up your claims. When you do this, you are appealing to your audience with logic or logos. Ethos Defined Trustworthiness is important in research. You must trust your sources, and your readers must trust you. The example above concerning logos contained two examples that were based on hard facts (numbers). However, one example comes from the American Lung Association. The other comes from Facebook fan pages. You should ask yourself: Which of these sources do you suppose is more credible? Anyone can start a Facebook page. Lady Gaga may have 50 different fan pages, and each page may contain duplicate fans. The fan page argument is probably not very sound (even though it seems logical). Ethos refers to the credibility of the person posing the argument or stating the facts. The facts provided by the American Lung Association are probably more persuasive than those provided by fan pages since the American Lung Association has been around for more than 100 years. At first glance, you might think that your own credibility is out of your control when it comes to posing academic arguments, but that is incorrect. Even if you write an academic paper on a topic that is outside your area of expertise, you can improve your credibility- using ethos to persuade- by coming across as a professional by citing credible sources and making your writing error-free and concise. Pathos Defined Pathos refers to appealing to a person by influencing his emotions. Pathos is involved in the strategy of convincing the audience by invoking feelings through their own imaginations. You appeal through pathos when you try to convince your parents of something. Consider this statement: Mom, there is clear evidence that cellphones save lives in emergency situations. While that statement is true, the real power lies in the emotions that you will likely invoke in your parents. What mother wouldnt envision a broken-down automobile perched by the side of a busy highway upon hearing that statement? Emotional appeals are extremely effective, but they can be tricky. There may or may not be a place for pathos in your research paper. For example, you may be writing an argumentative essay about the death penalty. Ideally, your paper should contain a logical argument. You should appeal to logos by including statics to support your view such as data that suggests that the death penalty does/does not cut down on crime (theres plenty of research both ways). Use Appeals to Emotion Sparingly You may also use pathos by interviewing someone who witnessed an execution (on the anti-death penalty side) or someone who found closure when a criminal was executed (on the pro-death penalty side). Generally, however, academic papers should employ appeals to emotions sparingly. A long paper that is purely based on emotions is not considered very professional. Even when you are writing about an emotionally charged, controversial issue like the death penalty, you cant write a paper that is all emotion and opinion. The teacher, in that circumstance, will likely assign a failing grade because you havent provided a sound (logical) argument. Source â€Å"Whats In a Cigarette?†Ã‚  American Lung Association,

An Evolution Of The Atomic Theory

An Evolution Of The Atomic Theory The atomic theory has advanced since the discovery of radioactivity in 1898. And so much of modern technology is based on these advancements. They couldn’t have happened without the discovery of electrons (e-), protons (p+), and neutrons (n0) through experiments done by four key scientists. Atomic theory starts to develop in 1897 when J. J. Thomson discovered the e- through his cathode ray experiment. In this experiment (figure one) he had a partially evacuated tube (a) with a cathode (b) and an anode (c) attached at each end. The cathode and anode were hooked up to a power source with the cathode being negative and the anode being positive. An electrical shock was sent through the cathode and it emitted negative cathode rays that traveled in a straight line (d). But when a positive magnet (e) was placed next to the rays, the rays deflected toward the positive magnet (f), proving they are negative because opposites attract. Another important discovery in atomic theory is protons. In 1910 at the University of Chicago a scientist named Rutherford was puzzled over the structure of the nuclear atom. J.J. Thomson had suggested a â€Å"plum pudding model† (Figure 2) of the nuclear atom where the atom is a ball of positive charge with e- stuck in it, but Rutherford wanted to put this theory to the test, so he conducted the gold foil experiment (Figure 3). There was a round florescent screen set up with a radioactive source at the entrance. From the radioactive source Rutherford fired ÃŽ ±- partials at thin gold foil. He expected them to all go through with minor deflections but this wasn’t the case. (Figure 4) He observed some particles moving off course from the straight line he assumed them travel, and some particles being bounced back altogether. From this observation came the conclusion that when a particle comes extremely close to where all the positive charge is located, it will move off co urse and when it hits this core it will deflect back. Rutherford called the core he found the nucleus which also makes up most of the mass of an atom and consists of protons. He found (figure 5) that the nucleus is surrounded by positive charge and has e- particles stuck in it. In 1911 Millikan was back on the job of electrons. Thomson had proven what the mass/charge of a e- was, he wanted to determine what the actual charge on each particle was. To do this he created the oil droplet experiment (Figure 6). Oil drops were sprayed into a chamber will a very tiny hole at the bottom. When an oil drop passed through the hole it was observed through a microscope and zapped with an x-ray that removed all air particles from it. The positive charge given through the plate above the particles was manipulated and monitored so the scientist could see how much positive charge it took to balance the negative charge underneath and the positive charge above and make the oil suspend in mid-air. From this they could determine the negative charge on an electron. Another thing that stumped Rutherford was why the atomic mass was larger than the combined mass of protons and electrons in a substance. He proposed that it was because of a neutral particle, but never did any experiments to prove this. In 1932 Chadwick took on the challenge and designed an experiment (Figure 7) where he fired ÃŽ ±- partials at a beryllium target. This then emitted particles that were allowed to fall onto paraffin wax, then releasing more particles, protons. From energy calculations he saw that the particles released from beryllium, as a result of the arrival of ÃŽ ±- partials on it, are uncharged and have essentially the same mass as protons, he called them neutrons. Without these important advances in atomic theory, it would be still assumed that the atom is the smallest particle of matter. Technology would be stuck in 1803 with John Dalton’s theory, and until a scientist came along with an experiment as brilliant as these, there would not be modern technology or a understanding of science as current as the one today.

IP3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

IP3 - Essay Example The services provided by organizations can be analyzed using the market share and growth rates and can be classified into four categories. The services can be classified as cash cows, question marks, dogs and stars depending on their performance in the competitive market. Portfolio analysis enables the organization to allocate it resources effectively and help in the decision making process. The challenge facing portfolio analysis is the accurate definition of product market segment by an organization. Portfolio analysis can be considered as an organized way to go about asset allocation in the market. The services  dispensed by the hospital can be evaluated using the service department offering the services. The market share will reflect the number of patients visiting the organization and the growth rate will be evaluated by the increase in customers on an annual basis. The hospital offers orthopedic services to its patients. Orthopedics deals with ailments affecting the musculoskeletal system in man. This is one of the high performing departments in the organization receiving  many patients on an annual basis. The hospital has allocated a large number of nursing staff and technological resources to the specialty. Another high performing department in the hospital is the Pulmonology department. Pulmonology deals with ailments that affect the respiratory tract in human beings. The hospital receives high numbers of patients thus has invested in nursing staff and technology to ensure that the organization is efficient. The hospital is ranked highly for the number of specialized patient services it provides. Pulmonology and Orthopedics services can be considered as cash cows to the organization due to the market share the hospital commands. Cash cows can be defined as those services that have elevated market share in a sluggish growing industry. The hospital has two cash cows explains the ranking

Annotated Bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Annotated Bibliography - Essay Example However, perceptions of employees and managers towards eLearning differ in small and large organizations. By taking on both large and small enterprises in Ireland from a number of sectors, the authors have conducted a research at how HR practitioners view eLearning, the level of awareness and results of eLearning in both the sectors. The authors found that eLearning has proved to be more beneficial in large organizations where greater awareness level is present. Moreover, use and knowledge of technology also determines the implications of eLearning on human resource development within organizations. Bullen, M.L & Eyler, K.A. (n.d). â€Å"Human resource accounting and international Developments: Implications for measurement of human capital† Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies. This article looks at how Human Resource Accounting (HRA) practice is undertaken in different countries like Greece, Canada, Germany, Portugal, etc. HRA considers investments made for developing intellectual capital as costs which reduce the profits of the firm. Lately, with the adoption of non-traditional modes of reporting and accounting, HRA finds relevance and place in this emerging trend as it helps managers in human resource decision making and strategy formulation. This article looks the adoption level and practice done in some major countries. Erasmus, B, Loedolff, V.P & Hammann, F. (2010). â€Å"Competencies for Human Resource Development Practitioners† International Business and Economics Research Journal, vol.9, no.8. This research paper identifies competencies- business, interpersonal and personal, required by HRD practitioners in attaining the desired level of success and satisfaction. The research was conducted on 1320 different sector South-African organizations to understand how well do these competencies apply to the HRD practitioners and how much are they satisfied with the current level of their skills and abilities. Hanna, D. (2010). â €Å"Organization Development and Human Resources Management† OD Practitioner, vol.42, no.4. Citing human resource development as the forces of stability within an organization, the author talks about the evolving role of HR from mere pay packages to caring and protecting employee rights. Human resource development adds value to the bottom line of the business and is the primary contributor to the overall organizational development. To achieve it, the author recommends steps for aligning HR and organizational development through team work, multitasking, staffing, empowerment, valuing diversity and carrying out a rotation plan for employees. Hassan, M & Yaqub, M.Z. (2010). â€Å"Strategic role of human resource development as boundary spanner† European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Services, Issue. 19. This article underpins the theoretical foundations of human resource development with practical challenges and dilemmas of HR managers and practitioners in the ever increasing globalized and complex business environment. The authors emphasize on boundary spanning role of HRD by identifying its contributions to the areas of leadership, responsiveness, flexibility, decision making, networking, collaboration and other forms of informal and self-directed learning in the workplace. Keavany, T.J. (1983). â€Å"Developing and maintaining human resources† Training and Development Journal, July. This article discusses in ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY - Essay Example CCTV cameras are being used almost everywhere to keep a check on criminals and this has been really effective in bringing down the crime rate. It has also being effective in restricting people from committing crimes. People tend to commit fewer crimes when they know that they are being watched and they will be nabbed should they commit a crime according to Marcus Nieto, the author of the article. There are social norms which every individual is expected to observe, crime is consistently on the rise in our modern day society. When individuals or groups decide not to follow norms, this is when deviance occurs. This deviance can cause a lot of trouble, vandalism is also the result of deviance and it is without a doubt a criminal activity. This paper will shed light upon crime and deviance at public events and public venues. The London bombing was a crime which shook the whole world, terrorists entered the metro station and caused havoc, this has had several ramifications. A few people who used to prefer trains have completed stopped traveling by train, it has deterred them from traveling by trains and it has inculcated fear like never before in them. Crime at a public place can affect a person mentally. If the same incident had occurred at a theme park, it would have left many people dead and the others who would survive the nightmare will never in their life visit a theme park again. It directly affects the psyche of an individual and changes it for worse; it breaks down an individual psychologically. Quality of life is directly affected after such a disastrous incident, it also affects the economy. Vandalism for instance can severely impact an economy, the damaged property is very difficult to replace and is very expensive too. Attack on Madrid’s subway station is another instance which changed the perception of people once and for all. â€Å"The police always say that crime is being prevented and the rate of crime has fallen down but they are destroying

Problem, search and selection Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Problem, search and selection - Research Paper Example In Australia, over 1000 people died in 2005 as a result of lower limb ulceration. This was a representation of 8% of people who died of diabetes that year. Every year 10,000 patients with diabetes ulcer foot are admitted in hospitals (Diabetes Australian, 2005, p.7). Diabetic foot infections occur as a result of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the only way to arrest the ulcers is to arrest bacteria reaction until the wound is healed (Molan, 2006, p.40). One of the effective remedies established to treat diabetes foot ulcers is honey. Clinic studies found that honey has a high anti-bacterial activity making it suitable treatment for bacteria that is anti-biotic resistance (Taks, 2007, p.54). Honey has an antioxidant that provides an anti-inflammatory reaction causing the wound to heal without inflaming the ulcers (Eddy and Gideonsen, 2005, p.533). Patients come to the hospital with serious wounds showing no progress insist on honey treatment, wounds are dressed under the supervision of O.R superintendent at the hospital. The honey treatment has appealed to many clinicians at the hospitals because of its wound healing effects. There is currently no specific research at my institution but this unconventional way of treating wounds may attract attention due to its healing properties. It has been found by French, cooper and Molan (2005, p.228) that wounds heal faster if given due attention. Honey has been used for years for wound treatment and in this case diabetic foot ulcers yet this traditional treatment has barely been recognized in clinical circles. There is need to establish in the clinic practice an effective therapy for foot ulcers (Pierre, 2008, p.342). II.Why honey works well on diabetic ulcers According to Gottrup, Apelaqvist and Price, (2010, p.239) if a wound is infected it will not heal. Too much bacteria stops the cells responsible for repairing the wound from growing. The bacteria’s outer coat also causes inflammation to the wound preventing it from healing. Serious wound infections that do not respond to therapy lead to amputations to stop the wound from spreading. Reports reach clinicians on the use of honey for clearing wounds but most claim it is not yet an assurity (Gottrup, Apelaqvist and Price, 2010, p.239). Because of a lack of a clear benchmark to treat diabetes foot ulcers, the hospital checks wound progress and if there is no improvement the patients are referred to an MFCT department. During treatment the hospital to stop infection educate the patients on importance of self care and foot inspection. Most patients with extreme wounds fear the risk of having their limbs amputated. The debridement, wound dressing, offloading, good glycaemic control, potential antibiotic therapy and vesicular intervention sometimes fail to treat the foot ulcers making the wounds deteriorate which leads to disfigurement, burns or amputation. In 1999 Capilano, Australia’s largest honey company came up with honey products a nd sold it to pharmacies, clinics and hospitals for medicinal purposes. The main aim was to use the honey products for healing untreatable wounds, ulcers and burns (Diabetes Australia, 2005, p.7). The therapy instead of going through the four stages, it arrests the problem at the inflammation stage. The anti-oxidant in honey was discovered two millenniums ago and that is why it is used to treat sunburn Gottrup, Apelaqvi

English Legal System & Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English Legal System & Practice - Essay Example 3) Ordinary words must be construed in their common meaning, and technical terms are to given their technical meaning, unless absurdity would result (golden rule). 4) When an Act has a curing of defect in the law for its purpose, any ambiguity shall be resolved in such a way so as to fulfil that aim (mischief rule). 5) When a list of specific items that belong to the same class is followed by general words, the general words are to be regarded as confined to the other items of the same class (the rule ejusdem generis (â€Å"of the same kind†). 6) When a list of specific items is not followed by general words, it is to be regarded as exhaustive (the rule expressio unius est exclusio alterius (â€Å"the inclusion of the one is the exclusion of the other†). 7) When a prior Act is found to be â€Å"on the like matter†, it can be used as an aid in construing the statute in question (the rule in paru materia, â€Å"on the like matter†). 8) When a word or group o f words has uncertain meaning, its construction should proceed in the light of its surrounding words (the rule noscitur a sociis (â€Å"known by its associates†). (â€Å"Rules and Principles of Statutory Interpretation† 295). In addition to these rules, there exist several general presumptions with regard to interpretation of statutes. The latter are presumed: not to bind the Crown in its decisions; not to operate retrospectively in the sphere of substantive (but not procedural) law; not to infringe upon vested rights; not to interfere with the jurisdiction of the courts; and not to contravene Acts on constitutional rights or norms of international law (â€Å"Rules and Principles of Statutory Interpretation† 295). The aforementioned rules of statutory interpretation may be illustrated by the following examples. In London and North Eastern Railway Co v Berriman (1946) the court decided that the claims of damages by the widow of the railway worker knocked down and killed by a train should not be satisfied as the statute provided that compensation was available to workers killed when engaging in ‘relaying or repairing’ tracks, while the worker in question was involved in doing routine maintenance, which the court deemed not being within the meaning of ‘relaying or repairing’ (Elliott and Quinn 44). This case may be taken as an example of literal rule in practice. The golden rule was used in interpretation of Section 57 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 in R v Allen (1872), when the court ruled that the phrase â€Å"whosoever being married shall marry any other person during the life of former husband or wife... shall be guilty of bigamy† led to the absurd conclusions, as it was impossible for a person already married to ‘marry’ anyone else, and the wording was accordingly changed from ‘shall marry’ to ‘shall go through a marriage ceremony’ (Elliott and Quinn 46) . Finally, the case of L’Office Cherifien des Phosphates Unitramp SA v Yamashita-Shinnihon Steamship Co Ltd (The Boucraa) (1994) demonstrated the application of presumption against retrospective effect in court ruling (Elliott and Quinn 50). This and other cases show how the rules of statutory interpretation are applied in the English case law. 2. The System of Judicial Precedent and the Right of House of Lords not to Be Bound by Its Own Past Decisions The modern English case law grew up out of standardisation of various ‘common laws’ of England undertaken by William the Conqueror in the second half of the 11th